Lesson 10 | Odds & Ends, Part 2

[1] Revisiting the Greek Article

In Greek I, we briefly introduced the function of the Greek article—the superhero of the Greek language, able to turn nearly any other part of speech into a noun, or even turn a whole phrase into a substantival, taking the place of a noun. You have also learned that the article can mark the attributive function of adjectives and participles, and contribute to distinct meanings of infinitive verb forms when combined with a preposition.
The importance of the Greek article can hardly be overstated. Indeed, as Daniel Wallace states,

In short, there is no more important aspect of Greek grammar than the article to help shape our understanding of the thought and theology of the NT writers.
Daniel Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (1996), 208.
The article can make a noun specific
If one of the primary functions of the article is to turn another part of speech into a noun or substantival, how does the article function when it is attached to a noun? When modifying a noun, the Greek article emphasizes a specific or particular identity. It can do so in a variety of ways:
To simply identify or distinguish. (This use is most like the English definite article.)
καὶ περιπατήσουσιν τὰ ἔθνη διὰ τοῦ φωτὸς αὐτῆς

and the nations will walk by its light

—Revelation 21:24
To refer to a previously mentioned identity.
λέγει οὖν αὐτῷ ἡ γυνὴ ἡ Σαμαρῖτις

So the Samaritan woman said to him,

—John 4:9
The article here is clearly pointing to a particular Samaritan woman. What woman? The one already introduced a few verses earlier.
To point to a near or present identity (“this one”).
Μακάριος ὁ ἀναγινώσκων καὶ οἱ ἀκούοντες τοὺς λόγους τῆς προφητείας

Blessed is the one who reads aloud and those who hear the words of this prophecy.

—Revelation 1:3
To mark an identity par excellence, in a class all by itself.
ὁ προφήτης εἶ σύ;

"Are you the Prophet?"

—John 1:21
To mark a unique, one-of-a-kind identity.
ἴδε ὁ ἀμνὸς τοῦ θεοῦ

"Behold, the Lamb of God"

—John 1:29
To mark a well-known identity (you know which one I mean).
οὐχ οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ τοῦ τέκτονος υἱός;

“Is this not the carpenter’s son [the son of the carpenter]?”

—Matthew 13:55
This question came from those in Nazareth who knew Jesus’ family well. So a reference to “the carpenter” was easily understood to be a reference to Joseph.
The article can stand in as a pronoun
Two common occurrences are:
1.  As a personal pronoun when combined with μὲν and δέ
ὁ μὲν … ὁ δέ, “one … and the other”
ἀλλʼ ἕκαστος ἴδιον ἔχει χάρισμα ἐκ θεοῦ, ὁ μὲν οὕτως, ὁ δὲ οὕτως

But each has his own gift from God, one this way, and another that way.
 
—1 Corinthians 7:7
or simply ὁ δέ
ὁ δὲ ἀποκριθεὶς εἶπεν ... ἡ δὲ εἶπεν

And he answered ... but she said ...

—Matthew 15:26-27
2.  As a possessive pronoun (“his”). It is important to note that the article does not in-and-of-itself communicate possession, but only specifies a particular identity, “the one.” The context will make clear that the one being referred to is “his.”
Οἱ ἄνδρες, ἀγαπᾶτε τὰς γυναῖκας

Husbands, love your wives

—Ephesians 5:25
Nouns without an article
When a noun lacks an article (the grammatical term is anarthrous), the noun can communicate a broader range of identity:
an indefinite identity, that is, any one of a whole class.
Ἔρχεται γυνὴ ἐκ τῆς Σαμαρείας ἀντλῆσαι ὕδωρ.

A woman of Samaria came to draw water

—John 4:7
a qualitative or categorical identity. 
ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἦν

In him was life

—John 1:4
Notice that it would be misleading to insert an English indefinite pronoun, "in him was a life." John is trying to point the reader to an abstract quality or identity. Note that, in the next phrase, ζωὴ has an article. This article functions to point back to the  previously mentioned entity, “this same life was the light of men.” (For another example, see 1 John 4:8, "God is love").
 ἐπʼ ἐσχὰτου τῶν ἡμερῶν τούτων ἐλάλησεν ἡμῖν ἐν ὑιῷ

In these last days, (God) has spoken to us in Son

—Hebrews 1:2
The correct sense here is difficult to convey in English. As in the previous example, it would be incorrect to use an English indefinite article, "in a Son." Two good possibilities would be to translate this as "the Son" or even "his Son." But these options do not wholly capture the significance of the author's choice to not use an article.  The prepositional phrase ἐν ὑιῷ highlights the contrast between the prophets through whom God formerly spoke and this one who is Son—that is, one who is of a different category altogether. The author of Hebrews further emphasizes the Son’s unique status (in contrast to angels) in the several OT quotations that follow in 1:5–14.
many nouns can be definite even without an article. For example,

proper names
εὑρίσκει Φίλιππος τὸν Ναθαναήλ

Philip found Nathanael

—John 1:45
and objects of prepositions
Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος

In the beginning was the Word

—John 1:1
Generally, you will intuitively know when to add an article to an anarthrous noun for the sake of a clear translation.