Within the larger OT narrative, God establishes a series of covenants with his people. These covenants form the backbone of the larger narrative. Through these covenants, God advances his kingdom, provides for his people, and accomplishes his promises.¹ God enacts five covenants in the Old Testament and promises a sixth. He enacts the Adamic covenant, the Noahic covenant, the Abrahamic covenant, the Mosaic covenant (or the old covenant), and the Davidic covenant. He promises the new covenant.
The Bible also calls the old covenant “the law.” In keeping with the promises God covenanted with Abraham (Gen 12;1-3; 15:1–21; 17:1–14), God made a nation from among Abraham’s descendants—a nation through which he would bless all the nations of the world. When God called Israel out of Egypt, he formed them as a nation by establishing a covenant with them. This Mosaic covenant (or “the law”) defined how the LORD and Israel related to one another.
In lesson 8, we will consider how we, as Christians, should properly make use of the OT law. For now, our focus is on how to properly interpret and understand the law. Let’s begin by observing some of the unique characteristics of this biblical genre.
Exodus 20:1–17
And God spoke all these words, saying,
“I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.
You shall have no other gods before me.
You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. You shall not bow down to them or serve them, for I the LORD your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments.
You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain, for the LORD will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain.
Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, and do all your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the LORD your God. On it you shall not do any work, you, or your son, or your daughter, your male servant, or your female servant, or your livestock, or the sojourner who is within your gates. For in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested on the seventh day. Therefore the LORD blessed the Sabbath day and made it holy.
Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land that the LORD your God is giving you.
You shall not murder.
You shall not commit adultery.
You shall not steal.
You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
You shall not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or his male servant, or his female servant, or his ox, or his donkey, or anything that is your neighbor’s.”
—Exodus 20:1–17
This passage features laws that are:
concise
both positive commands and negative prohibitions
broad in scope, not situationally specific
categorically stated without qualifications or exceptions
sometimes accompanied by rationale or motivations
Exodus 22:1–6
If a man steals an ox or a sheep, and kills it or sells it, he shall repay five oxen for an ox, and four sheep for a sheep. If a thief is found breaking in and is struck so that he dies, there shall be no bloodguilt for him, but if the sun has risen on him, there shall be bloodguilt for him. He shall surely pay. If he has nothing, then he shall be sold for his theft. If the stolen beast is found alive in his possession, whether it is an ox or a donkey or a sheep, he shall pay double.
If a man causes a field or vineyard to be grazed over, or lets his beast loose and it feeds in another man’s field, he shall make restitution from the best in his own field and in his own vineyard.
If fire breaks out and catches in thorns so that the stacked grain or the standing grain or the field is consumed, he who started the fire shall make full restitution.
—Exodus 22:1–6
In this case, the laws are:
Deuteronomy 10:12–22
And now, Israel, what does the LORD your God require of you, but to fear the LORD your God, to walk in all his ways, to love him, to serve the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul, and to keep the commandments and statutes of the LORD, which I am commanding you today for your good?
Behold, to the LORD your God belong heaven and the heaven of heavens, the earth with all that is in it. Yet the LORD set his heart in love on your fathers and chose their offspring after them, you above all peoples, as you are this day. Circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart, and be no longer stubborn.
For the LORD your God is God of gods and Lord of lords, the great, the mighty, and the awesome God, who is not partial and takes no bribe. He executes justice for the fatherless and the widow, and loves the sojourner, giving him food and clothing. Love the sojourner, therefore, for you were sojourners in the land of Egypt.
You shall fear the LORD your God. You shall serve him and hold fast to him, and by his name you shall swear. He is your praise. He is your God, who has done for you these great and terrifying things that your eyes have seen. Your fathers went down to Egypt seventy persons, and now the LORD your God has made you as numerous as the stars of heaven.
—Deuteronomy 10:12–22
This passage frames the commands with:
thorough descriptions of God’s character
an emphasis on appropriate human response to God’s character and actions in history
repeated calls to turn from sin and to walk in obedience
Categories of OT Law
In the above examples, we can observe two different kinds of laws: apodictic laws and casuistic laws. Dr. Jason DeRouchie explains:
Moses’ laws come to us in two forms, which scholars have tagged as apodictic and casuistic. Apodictic laws are those that are base principles stated in such a way that there is no qualification or exception. In contrast, casuistic laws are always situational, related to specific circumstances. Casuistic laws are often applications of apodictic laws.
—Dr. Jason DeRouchie, How to Understand and Apply the Old Testament, 51.
The Ten Commandments in Exodus 20:1–17 are apodictic laws. The various laws in Exodus 22:1–6 are casuistic laws. They specify how to apply the apodictic law “You shall not steal” to specific situations.
Dr. Jason DeRouchie categorizes OT law further into five distinct kinds of laws:²
Criminal - punishable crimes (Num 35:30–31)
Civil - private disputes (Exod 23:1–8; Lev 19:35–37)
Family - household codes (Deut 6:6–9; 21:15–17)
Ceremonial/Sacrificial - forms and rituals of religious life (Exod 20:24–26; Lev 1:1–9)
Compassion - matters of charity, justice, and mercy (Exod 22:21–24; Deut 24:17–18)
While Dr. DeRouchie advocates for the above divisions, historically many in the church have categorized OT laws as moral, civil, or ceremonial.
Keys to Interpreting OT Law
Identify the kind of law.
Is this law apodictic or casuistic?
Which of the five categories does this law address?
Describe how the law fits into its larger context.
If it is a casuistic law, is it an application of an apodictic law?
How does this law relate to its surrounding context, whether narrative, speeches, or other laws? For example, the command in Deuteronomy 10:18 to “love the sojourner” grows out of the LORD’s identity and develops the command to fear and serve him.
Pay attention to statements that explain or ground the law.
For example, God roots the command in Deuteronomy 10:18 to “love the sojourner” in both the Lord’s action (note the “therefore”) and Israel’s history (“for you were sojourners in the land of Egypt.”)
Ask, “What does this passage reveal concerning God’s character and values?”
Ask, “What does this law reveal about human nature?”
That is, what sinful bent of the heart is this law exposing and aiming to curb?